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It’s strange to imagine, but physicists cannot accurately describe nearly three quarters of the matter and energy in the universe. Because as it turns out, nearly 73% of the universe is composed of a mysterious substance called dark energy. In physical terms, no one knows exactly what dark energy is. Instead, dark energy is a theoretical construct that permeates all of the space in the universe and can provide an explanation as to why the expansion rate of the universe is increasing. Simply put, Dark Energy is a force that is intrinsically found in space and is causing the expansion rate of the universe to increase.

There are different opinions as to how and when Dark Energy was discovered. Although physical observations have only recently confirmed the existence of dark energy, some say that Einstein discovered Dark Energy way back when he was formulating his General Theory of Relativity. While making the General Theory of Relativity, Einstein originally added the “cosmological constant” into his equations in order create a static universe. In this original formulation of General Relativity, the cosmological constant acted as a mysterious force that caused the universe to expand; this was necessary in order for General Relativity to predict a static universe, which Einstein wanted. However, Einstein then removed this cosmological constant when observations by Hubble indicated that the Universe was expanding. But since the cosmological constant causes the Universe to expand and would permeate all of space, it is essentially dark energy.

However, others say that dark energy was really discovered in 1998, as this was the first time a physical phenomenon that required the existence of dark energy to be explained was observed. Scientists from Berkeley and scientists from Australian National University observed two supernovas that were farther apart than models would predict in a universe that lacked dark energy. Consequently, others say that these scientists discovered dark energy.

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If an alien civilization tried to reach out to us, how would they do it? Radio waves are the obvious answer; they travel far and only require a small power input. But what type of radio signal would aliens send?

In the early seventies, physicists Phillip Morrison and Giuseppe Cocconi predicted that an alien civilization would transmit a radio signal at 1420 MHz and in a narrow band frequency. Why? An alien signal would have to be something more fundamental and universal than language, something that any intelligent civilization would understand. So why not use a number associated with the most common element in the universe, hydrogen? Hydrogen emits radiation at 1420Mhz. Furthermore, Morrison and Cocconi predicted that an extraterrestrial civilization would send the signal at a narrow band frequency, as narrow band frequency signals require less energy and are created by no natural phenomena.

On August 15, 1977, an exact match for this signal predicted by Morrison and Cocconi arrived on a detector in Delaware, Ohio. Astronomer Jerry Ehman, who first discovered the signal in the data a little while later, christened it the, “Wow!” signal. It has never been explained since.

Black Hole

“Black holes have no hair.” So said physicist John Wheeler. This statement seems obvious: a black hole is a region of space time that contains so much matter that its gravitational field is intense enough that not even light can escape from it. So why would a black hole have hair? But what Wheeler really means is much more interesting. Black holes may really just be giant elementary particles (elementary particles: proton, neutron, electron, etc.).

To begin with, what makes one type of elementary particle, say a proton, different from another, say an electron? There are really only three characteristics that differentiate them. The first is mass: the proton is bigger. The second is charge: the proton has a positive charge, while the electron has a negative charge. The third is spin: some electrons spin clockwise, others spin counter clockwise.

Now for a similar question: what makes one black hole different from another? It turns out that, like elementary particles, black holes have only three distinguishing characteristics: mass, charge, and spin. These are the exact same distinguishing features of elementary particles! (This is what Wheeler means when he says black holes have no hair: they are relatively similar to each other, and lack complicated hair dos to differentiate themselves.)

So, if black holes have the same distinguishing characteristics as elementary particles, are they the same thing. At first thought one may assume not; black holes are massive and elementary particles tiny. However, physicist believe that microscopic black holes the size of elementary particles do exist. And the other traits: charge and spin, can also be exact. So if one had a microscopic black hole that matched the exact size, charge, and spin of a specific elementary particle, might the black hole actually be that elementary particle? Who knows? For a more in depth look at this topic, check out: The Elegant Universe by Brian Greene.

Brad Rybinski

The Iconoclast: Imaginary Time

Most people know that Albert Einstein was a great physicist. What they do not know is that he was so much more than that. Einstein not only revolutionized physics, but he also helped avert a civil war, was a wise philosopher, offered the presidency of Israel, and, as a young man, had multiple girlfriends. Indeed, most people don’t know that Einstein was in fact more of a god than Jesus Christ. But I digress…

One of the things Einstein discovered is that space and time is essentially the same thing. The phrases “far away” and “long ago” actually have the same meaning in the language of the universe. There is not “space” and “time” in the universe, there is only “spacetime”.

For instance, as I write this, it is Sunday, August 9, 2009, at 1:54 AM, and I am in my basement, typing on my computer. Now, let’s ask an interesting question. Where was I a year ago (August 9, 2008) at this time, 1:54 AM? I was at the University of Delaware Campus, and I was taking Marine Biology Camp. Now for a better question. “What” separates the Brad Rybinski typing this blog from the Brad Rybinski that was at the University of Delaware?

Well, you might say 1 year. But that’s not exactly true. If it were just 1 year, I would have been sitting at my computer on August 9, 2008. So you must also account for distance. The University of Delaware is roughly 20 miles from my house. Therefore, one could say that the Brad Rybinski at Marine Biology camp is one year and 20 miles away from the Brad Rybinski typing this article.

But remember, space and time are actually part of the same thing. So is it possible to calculate how much space time separates the current Brad Rybinski from the one in the past? In other words, can we convert two measurements, the measurement of distance and the measurement of time, into a single measurement of spacetime? We can. The physicist Hermann Minkowski showed how.  Lets roll…

1.      Everything in science is done in metric. So first, convert 1 year to seconds, and 20 miles to kilometers.  1 year = 31,556,926 seconds                20 miles = 32.18688

2.      Take the time difference (31,556,926 seconds) and multiply it by the speed of light (300,000 km/second). This will convert time units to units of distance.       

9.4670778 x 10^12 km

3.      3. Square the distance in space. 32.18688^2 = 1035.995244

4.      Subtract the number from step 2 from the number in step 3. 9.4670778 x 10^12 km - 1035.995244 = - 9.4670778 x10^12 (My calculator apparently lacks sufficient resolution to get the exact answer, but we can proceed nevertheless.

5.      Take the square root. This will produce the distance in spacetime, in kilometers.

(- 9.4670778 x10^12)^(1/2) = (3076861.68) i kilometers

Hmm… So we’ve calculated distance in spacetime, only to get an imaginary number. What does this mean? Math teachers constantly remind students that negative distance has no meaning. So what on earth would imaginary distance mean? I have no idea, and physicists don’t have that many great ideas. The only thing that physicists know for certain is that the presence of i tells us that space and time, though part of the same thing, are still different in some fundamental way; space is still space and time is still time. This obviously agrees with our experience in the world. Oh physics…

Brad Rybinski

Sources:

About Time: Einstein’s Unfinished Revolution by Paul Davies

http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/cosmicvariance/files/2008/11/time-flies-clock-10-11-2006.gif

The Iconoclast: Absolute Hot

Most people reading this are familiar with the concept of absolute zero: Zero degrees Kelvin        ( -273 degrees Celsius) is the coldest temperature possible, and at this temperature matter is not moving at all. In reality, absolute zero can never be actually achieved, and even if it could the matter would still be moving slightly. So much for high school chemistry. But I digress, as absolute zero is not the point of this article…

The point of this article is that there may be an “opposite” to absolute zero. Appropriately, it is called “absolute hot”, and represents the highest attainable temperature a hunk of matter can reach. Absolute hot is estimated to be reached at 1.41678571 × 10³²  degrees Kelvin. This temperature is known as the Planck temperature, and the laws of physics are said to breakdown once one reaches this point. Specifically, the four fundamental forces of nature (gravity, electromagnetism, the weak force, and the strong force) are said to unify into a single force, and weird things happen to space and time.

For more information and a more research perspective on this, see: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/zero/hot.html

Brad Rybinski

Triboluminescence

What happens when you crush a Wint-O-Green Lifesaver in a dark room?

WARNING!!! Wear safety goggles if you try this!

Triboluminescence!

Source: http://www.geocities.com/rainforest/9911/tribo.htm

“Triboluminescence is an optical phenomenon in which light is generated when asymmetrical crystalline bonds in a material are broken when that material is scratched, crushed, or rubbed.” So says Wikipedia. Translation: Take a lump of sugar, and crush it with a pair of pliers in the dark. You will see a bluish flash. Other crystals, as well as Scotch tape, certain envelopes, and Wint-O-Green Life Savers can produce the same effect. No one understands exactly why. The best theory says that when the crystal is broken, opposite charges are separated and spewed into the air. Once the charges recombine (because opposites attract) the electrical discharge ionizes the surrounding air. This causes a bluish flash of light. Here’s how to do it yourself: http://www.webexhibits.org/causesofcolor/4AE.html

Brad Rybinski

How does nature organize itself? How do things self assemble? Scientists are seeking the answers to these questions and more, as they coax bits of metal to self assemble into life- like snakes. Check out this article and the pictures below.

Brad Rybinski

Ever see Iron Man? Or Robocop? Well, science fiction is one step closer to reality with Canadian inventor Troy Hurtubise’s “Bear Suit”. Check out the video below.

The Bear Suit

Brad Rybinski